Why do constellations only appear in the sky during the year? Read more: How to use the Southern Cross to locate the direction south. Whether you can see them or not in the northern hemisphere will depend on where you are and the time of the year. The globular cluster M92 in Hercules is a familiar target for amateur astronomers, a compact swarm of stars near M13, one of the brightest globulars visible from the northern hemisphere. You can decline to give a name; if that is the case, the comment will be attributed to a random star. Astronomy; A super rare green comet is about to make its first and only appearance in recorded history and it will be visible to the naked eye. The dominant constellation figure of Cepheus (the King) a stick house can be made out near Cassiopeia on a clear, dark night. Giraffe. Auriga, pronounced aw-RYE-guh, is a constellation in the northern hemisphere. Naos is one of the most luminous stars visible to the unaided eye. Its also one of the most useful for navigation, thanks to the fact that the Pointers (Merak and Dubhe, the two stars furthest away from the Dippers handle) show the way to Polaris, known to explorers for centuries as the North Star. You will receive a verification email shortly. It is 813,000 times more luminous than the Sun and shines at magnitude that varies from 2.24 to 2.26 from a distance of 1,080 light-years. Particularly impressive are Elon Musks Starlink satellites (opens in new tab), which appear as trains of lights working across the sky they look like something out of Close Encounters of the Third Kind. The zodiac constellations Leo and Virgo rise in the east in the evening. The 10 constellations in the Ursa Major Family all lie in the northern celestial hemisphere and can be seen rotating around the north celestial pole throughout the year from northern latitudes. As they sailed even farther south, the Big Dipper dropped out of sight as well. Formed by Capella, Menkalinan, Almaaz, Mahasim, and Hassaleh in Auriga with Elnath in Taurus, the hexagon pattern is a guide to several relatively bright deep sky objects that appear in this area of the sky. Facebook. Fortunately, the Southern Cross acts as a navigational aid. Its luminary Alphard, an orange giant, shines at magnitude 2.00 and the constellations second brightest star, the yellow giant Gamma Hydrae, is a full magnitude fainter. The Dragons tail is found between the Big and Little Dippers. It lies much closer to us and marks one of the Bulls eyes. The famous variable red giant Mira appears in the Sea Monsters neck. Minneapolis, Minnesota (45 degrees north) is used as a reference city. What Do Wasps Do for the Environment? Crux stars can be used to find the fainter Musca (the Fly), which lies near Acrux. The Hyades and the Pleiades are among the brightest and nearest open clusters in the sky. It marks the tail of Cetus. The dwarf galaxy is visible without binoculars and appears as a detached piece of the Milky Way in the sky. Do We Need Them? You'll probably be able to see the constellation Pisces. Vela represents the ships sails and Carina, the keel. March Objects Open Clusters: M67, Berkeley 39 Globular . The triangle asterism is known as the Winter Triangle or the Great Southern Triangle. The bright Auriga is high in the northwestern sky. This giant of the northern hemisphere night sky is visible throughout the winter, and is one of the most prominent constellations. This statement makes sense, because the constellations visible in the sky depend on longitude. Its brightest stars, Pollux and Castor, represent the heads of the Twins. On Tuesday, March 21, the Moon appears absent from the skies. Six constellations visible from the Northern Hemisphere during spring include the following: Bootes Cancer Crater Hydra Leo Virgo Bootes, known as the Herdsman, contains the supergiant red star Arcturus, which is 37 light-years from Earth and is 20 times larger than our sun. The three relatively bright stars that outline the Dogs hind legs and tail Adhara, Wezen, and Aludra form a distinctive triangle below Sirius. Some constellations can be seen from the southern hemisphere. You just need to look. Aldebaran, the brightest star in Taurus and the 14th brightest star in the sky, appears in the same line of sight as the Hyades but is not a member of the cluster. There's no register feature and no need to give an email address if you don't want to. The Southern Cross - also known as Crux - is an iconic constellation for people south of the equator. Despite this, there are factors whether you are in the city or not that are contributing to the dimming of our star vision. Cassiopeia lies in the northwestern sky and Ursa Major is high in the northeast. Advnture is part of Future US Inc, an international media group and leading digital publisher. Leo rises in the northeastern sky. To the naked eye, 7 stars are visible in the Pleiades (right) and at least 15 stars in the Hyades (left), rising to many dozens with the use of good quality binoculars. Other famous deep sky objects in Taurus include the Crab Nebula (M1), Hinds Variable Nebula (NGC 1555), and the Merope Nebula (NGC 1435). These constellations are mostly bright and easy to see even from areas with some light pollution. After you find a spot, you should stare at the sky and then let your eyes adapt to the dark for 10 minutes. Above the characteristic V shape, youll see the Pleiades, also known as the Seven Sisters. No matter the hour or date, the Southern Cross climbs to its highest point in the sky when its due south. What Is Sustainable Development and Why Is It Necessary? The head of Hydra, the largest constellation in the sky, appears near the zenith around 10 pm. Two meteor showers, the Beta Taurids and the Taurids, have their radiants in the constellation. Top left of centre, the two prominent stars are Castor and Pollux in Gemini. The faint constellations Pyxis and Antlia also make an appearance in the southern and southeastern sky, but their stars are barely visible from light-polluted areas. This is not a complete map of the night sky. The Southern Hemisphere, on the other hand, does not have its own 'Southern Star'. It lies 65.3 light-years away, while the cluster is about 153 light-years away. The Northern Cross is an astronomical asterism in the northern hemisphere of the celestial sphere, corresponding closely with the constellation Cygnus the swan. Note that the blue color of the nebula is not because of Rigels blue light, but because the dust in the nebula reflects blue light more efficiently than any other color. However, the giant star is not a member of the Hyades. These constellations appear high overhead in the evening. The celestial River stretches farther from north to south than any other constellation. The bright Menkar, the star that marks the Sea Monsters jaw, can be found by following the V of the Hyades cluster in Taurus. Its five brightest stars form a prominent hexagon with Elnath, the star that marks the northern horn of Taurus, the Bull. The South Star, Sigma Octantis (Polaris Australis) is barely visible even in the best of conditions, so the bright stars of Crux, Centaurus, and Eridanus are commonly used to determine the location of the pole. VIDEO ANSWER: Hey, I'm Hi. northern hemisphere but you ve never travelled south of the equator you only know half the story visiting the southern . Remember spring up and fall down. When Nature . How the Yoga of Design Brings Harmony to Your Home, 7 Eco-Friendly Resorts for Sustainable Travelers, Where & How to Recycle Laptops and Why Its So Important, Everyday Palm Oil Products and Sustainable Alternatives, 9 Beautiful & Sustainable Bras That Help the Planet, 6 Solutions to Deforestation and What You Can Do, The 15 Cutest Exotic Animals in the World. But it does have a number of circumpolar constellations that are unique to that part of the world. In December and January you have to catch Crux before dawn. The curved line leads first to Arcturus, the brightest northern star, and then to Spica. The Head of Draco is outlined by four relatively bright stars: Eltanin, Rastaban, Grumium, and Kuma. What Does Afforestation Mean and Why Is It Important? Visible in a dark sky as a large, fuzzy patch of light bigger than a full moon (its slightly clearer with binoculars) the Andromeda Galaxy can be found (opens in new tab) just below the distinctive and ever-present W-shaped constellation Cassiopeia. The northern side of the asterism points in the direction of Spica. For the northern hemisphere, summer constellations are best visible from June to late September. Tonights sky as seen from mid-northern latitudes, image: Stellarium. The clusters appear in the same area of the sky as Sirius. The Big Dipper soars highest in the sky on late northern spring evenings. Even though its age is only 3.2 million years (compared to the Suns 4.6 billion years), Naos is already near the end of its life. Located about 1,000 light years away, the Witch Head Nebula reflects the light of the bright star Rigel in neighboring Orion, but it still requires a dark sky in order to see this large but faint elongated object. Looking like a fainter, smaller version of the Big Dipper, this famous cluster is a group of young (by astronomical standards, at least) stars. What constellations are visible in the northern hemisphere? Tucana in the southwestern sky hosts 47 Tucanae, the second brightest globular cluster in the sky, after Omega Centauri. The changing sky has always fascinated mankind. Procyon, the brightest star in Canis Minor, is the eighth brightest star in the sky. They are located about 7,500 light years away, and are approaching us at a speed of 39 km/sec. The most conspicuous constellations high overhead in the evening are Canis Major and Canis Minor. What wildlife can you see at Yellowstone National Park? You may opt out any time. The O-type supergiant shines at magnitude 2.24 from 1,080 light-years away and Pi Puppis, an orange supergiant, has an apparent magnitude of 2.73 and lies 810 light-years away. Original image data dated on or about 02 August 2020, Explore related images: Earth's night sky, The Earth-Moon system, Worlds, Murray Buttes 360-degree panorama, Curiosity sol 1421. Ursa Major (The Big Dipper) If you live in the Northern Hemisphere, the Big Dipper is a constellation staple. When small pieces of rock and ice burn up in the atmosphere, they create a short-lived trail of light, visible for seconds at most, colloquially (but incorrectly) known to most of us as shooting stars. Its three brightest stars, the orange giants Alpha, Epsilon, and Iota Antliae, have apparent magnitudes of 4.25, 4,51, and 4.60. The Lions tail once extended into what is now Coma Berenices. It is one of the most recognizable constellations, with its distinctive pattern of three bright stars forming Orion's Belt, and several other bright stars surrounding them. . It has a close spectroscopic companion, a hot blue O-type giant with a mass of 28.5 solar masses and a luminosity of 280,000 Suns. No meteor showers are associated with Canis Major. Lepus (the Hare) appears at Orions feet. Thats many millennia before the first humans walked on Earth. A line extended from Merak through Dubhe points in the general direction of Polaris. It's visible every clear night, and its stars shine brightly enough to be picked out. For the Northern Hemispheres tropical and subtropical regions, the month of May is a good time for finding Crux in the evening sky. Here are some of the best tips for stargazing in the Northern Hemisphere. For the next six months in the Northern Hemisphere, the days will be longer than the nights. Northern sky in the northern hemisphere, image: Stellarium. You cant plan where or when youll see them theyre most often spotted out of the corner of your eye though you can improve your chances of a sighting during meteor showers. In summer, the northern hemisphere is full of constellation groupings: Camping is a fun way to enjoy the great outdoors, but theres no need to travel far you can. According to In-The-Sky.org , the constellations of Eridanus, Gemini, Lepus, Monoceros and Taurus are all near Orion's Belt. This representation of a legendary hunter boasts two of the brightest stars in the sky in Rigel and Betelgeuse, while Orions sword contains the famous Orion Nebula. If youre in the Northern Hemisphere, you too can see the famous Southern Cross, if youre far enough south, and know where and when to look. Its three brightest stars Atria (Alpha Trianguli Australis), Beta Trianguli Australis, and Gamma Trianguli Australis form an almost equilateral triangle that appears just to the right of the Southern Pointers in the evening. Situated 1,350 light-years away, M42 is actually a vast star-forming region called a nebula, which becomes more apparent when viewed through 1050 binoculars or a telescope, when its central region becomes obvious, together with fainter nebulosity stretching outwards as two wings. King of Ethiopia in Greek mythology. Cetus has partly set by 10 pm. Crux is not visible north of "20 o in the northern hemisphere, and it is circumpolar south of 34 o S, this means that it never sets below the horizon. The name means "Guardian of the Bear" and comes from ancient Greek legends. Its visible every clear night, and its stars shine brightly enough to be picked out pretty easily even from urban locations. It shines at magnitude 0.61 from a distance of 390 light-years. The cluster is easily visible to the unaided eye on a clear night. Denebola appears at the tip of the tail. The stars of Coma Berenices are faint. But to spot it, the Big Dipper has to be viewed at the right season of the year and the right hour of the night. The three stars of Orions belt are also useful pointers to finding the brightest star in the night sky. It marks the Rivers end. However, most of the Greek constellations, including the constellations of the zodiac, have a much longer history, going back to Babylonian times and some even to the Late Bronze Age. The hourglass figure of Orion appears parallel to the horizon. Regor, the luminary of Vela, is part of a multiple-star system that contains the brightest and nearest Wolf-Rayet star to the Sun. Hydra: the largest constellation in the sky. Vela, Puppis, Dorado, and Chamaeleon. Although the hare does not represent any particular figure in Greek mythology, Lepus was one . Credit: VW Pics / Getty Images. Note that the bright orange star Aldebaran is a foreground star, and does not form part of the Hyades cluster. It is perhaps worth noting that Cetus, along with Eridanus, another constellation on this list, inhabits a region of space that is commonly known as the Water, due to its close proximity to other constellations whose names also involve aquatic themes. 4. Pegasus Pegasus is a constellation located in the north sky. Follow Orions belt in the other direction from Sirius and youll find yourself in Taurus, the sign of the Zodiac representing the bull. It can be seen in summer from the northern hemisphere, but is low in the sky and is best seen from the southern hemisphere or southern United States. The constellations that appear in the northern sky are mostly those that are circumpolar to the northern hemisphere: Ursa Minor, Cepheus, and Draco. Bruce McClure served as lead writer for EarthSky's popular Tonight pages from 2004 to 2021, when he opted for a much-deserved retirement. Miaplacidus, the second brightest star in Carina, can be used to find the fainter constellations Volans and Chamaeleon, while Canopus appears near the border with Pictor. For example, a line drawn from the star Gacrux through the star Acrux points in the general direction of the south celestial pole (the point in the sky directly above the Earths south pole). There are a total of 29 Constellations in the Northern Celestial Hemisphere. 0. If you are closer to the equator around the 30 latitude in places like Florida or Spain, a couple of these constellations might dip below the horizon . This bright open cluster is found 2,300 light years away and contains more than 100 stars spread out across an area bigger than the full Moon, with at least 6 resolvable in a pair of 1050 binoculars. The zodiac constellations Leo and Virgo easily stand out above the eastern horizon. Your role in space exploration starts now. By Andrew Ballantynecategories: Environment & Nature July 25, 2022, 9:58 AM. Image Credit: Dieter Willasch (Astro-Cabinet). The Winter Football, also known as the Winter Hexagon and Winter Circle, is an asterism composed of the brightest stars in the constellations of Canis Major, Orion, Taurus, Auriga, Gemini, and. The orange giant Menkent, the third brightest point of light in Centaurus, marks the Centaurs head while Alpha and Beta Centauri mark the feet. It hosts three open clusters listed in the Messier catalogue: Messier 46, Messier 47, and Messier 93. Taurus dominates the northwestern sky. With friends or family, you can find and point out constellations in the night sky while using them to find others. Orion is a prominent constellation visible in the night sky, named after a hunter from Greek mythology. Spica can be used to find the constellation Corvus (the Raven). Although the Big Dipper is a fixture of the Northern Hemisphere skies, this star formation has a close kinship with the Southern Cross. If you look up to the sky to see constellations, you may wonder why they are in a certain spot or how to see them better. The following list is a list of Constellations that are located in the Northern Celestial Hemisphere. The constellation of Gemini, the Twins, borders Orion on the Hunter's upper left shoulder. These constellations are always visible in the night sky of the Southern Hemisphere. It can be found using the outer stars of the Big Dippers bowl. The first part of the question talks about how early people use the constellations. Here is a map of the night sky for June 2022, showing constellations you can see from mid-northern latitudes such as London or New York in mid-month at 10pm local time. Summer constellations are collections of stars best viewed in the night sky between the summer months of June to late September. Whatever you want to call it, this famous constellation is one of the most recognisable in the northern hemisphere night sky, visible all year round in the UK thanks to its high latitude. The best constellations to stargaze in spring are: Spring is the best time to view these constellations and two more can be found only just north, no further, above the equator: For the northern hemisphere, summer constellations are best visible from June to late September. A cloudy evening or night will prevent you from mapping out these constellations. It is traditionally known as the Goat Star. 2.53) with several fainter stars, can be found using the V-shaped Hyades cluster, which outlines the head of the Bull (Taurus). Apus Ara Capricornus Circinus Corona Borealis Delphinus Equuleus Hercules Indus Libra Microscopium Norma Ophiuchus Pavo Sagittarius Chart the stars and planets visible to the unaided eye from any location, at any time of day or night, on any date between the years 1600 to 2400 by entering your location, either via zip code, city, or latitude/longitude. The hot blue star Achernar, the brightest star in Eridanus, is the ninth-brightest star in the sky. In that part of the Southern Hemisphere, the Southern Cross is circumpolar, which means it circles the sky close to the celestial pole and is always above the horizon. New York, Its stars are easily visible between Taurus and Cassiopeia on a clear night. Stellarium Orion appears high in the northwestern sky. NGC 884 (left) and NGC 869 (right) are relatively young at just 12.5 million years old and contain more than 200 stars each, including around 300 blue-white supergiants, and several orange-red stars. Orion is located on the celestial equator, and can be seen from most parts of the world. Alpha Pyxidis shines at magnitude 3.68 and Alpha Antliae is even fainter at magnitude 4.25. The Pleiades (M45) is arguably the most famous open star cluster in the entire sky, and together with the Hyades star cluster (Melotte 25) can be found just 444 light-years and 153 light-years away respectively in the constellation Taurus. At this time of the year, the Big Dipper appears upside down, with the handle pointing toward the horizon. The Y of Virgo, the identifying feature of Virgo, has partly risen by 10 pm, but the bright Spica, the 16th brightest star in the sky, rises a bit later in the evening. Other notable deep sky objects in Gemini include M35 (NGC 2168), a fairly conspicuous star cluster, the Jellyfish Nebula, the Medusa Nebula, and Geminga, a neutron star. It is formed by a circle of mostly faint stars. It is formed by Rigel, Betelgeuse, Bellatrix, Saiph, and the stars of Orions Belt (Alnitak, Alnilam, and Mintaka). Pollux is one of the stars that form the Winter Hexagon, an exceptionally bright and large asterism formed by six first-magnitude stars (Sirius, Capella, Rigel, Procyon, Aldebaran, and Pollux). It lies at the base of an asterism called the Kite. Click on the image to view a larger size. Perseus sits high in the southwest. Lynx occupies much of the space between these two constellations and Ursa Major, but its brightest stars are fainter than magnitude 3.0 and difficult to see from urban skies. The stars of Monoceros are invisible from heavily light-polluted areas, but the constellation is a popular target for stargazers and astrophotographers because it hosts several well-known deep-sky objects. Rigel, the constellations brightest star, can be used to find Cursa, the second brightest star in Eridanus (the River). It looks very much like a lopsided diamond or crooked box and is visible in the northern hemisphere between April and July. While you wont see any alien invasion forces or even the supposed canals that 19th century astronomers believed confirmed the existence of Martian life its still well worth a look. Industries like mining contribute to the aerosol pollution as well as light pollution because they work through the night. Eastern sky from equatorial latitudes, image: Stellarium. Aldebaran appears as the brightest member of the Hyades, a bright, large, V-shaped open cluster easily visible to the unaided eye. Hydra, the largest of the 88 constellations, stretches from the northeastern to the southeastern sky. The constellation figure of Circinus, a small, elongated triangle reminiscent of the compass (the drafting tool), can be made out between the Southern Triangle and the luminaries of the constellation Centaurus. Northern Hemisphere Longwave Infrared Composite Base Map. Alnitak, Alnilam, and Mintaka point in the direction of the giant star. The fainter Lupus (the Wolf) is partly visible below the Pointers. Aurigas hexagon is the most prominent feature of the Charioteer constellation. Crescent and gibbous phases highlight some of the detail thats obscured by the glare of the full Moon. Gemini's two prominent stars, Castor (Alpha () Geminorum . Southern sky in the southern hemisphere, image: Stellarium. View our Privacy Policy. For the northern hemisphere, spring constellations are best visible from late March to late June. Even though they each contain several stars brighter than magnitude 3.0, the constellations do not contain any particularly conspicuous asterisms that would make them instantly recognizable. Mars is well placed for observing most of the night following its December 2022 opposition. The other five stars of the Winter Circle are Capella in Auriga, Aldebaran in Taurus, Rigel in Orion, Sirius in Canis Major, and Procyon in Canis Minor. It appears in the same line of sight as the Hyades and can be found on the imaginary line extended from the three stars of Orions Belt. Out of all the options, option B is the right one. Its brightest star, the orange giant Alpha Lyncis, shines at magnitude 3.14. The Big Dipper can actually be seen in the Southern Hemisphere at opportune times from about 26 degrees south latitude and all latitudes farther north. A chart showing some of the constellations that are visible from the Northern Hemisphere in different times of year. It is not a list as to whether the constellation can be seen in the northern hemisphere. Look for it low in the east an hour before sunrise in the constellation Aquarius. Northern sky from equatorial latitudes, image: Stellarium. The more conspicuous Pleiades cluster marks the shoulder of Taurus while the V-shaped Hyades cluster marks the Bulls Head. These include the Rosette Nebula with the Satellite Cluster, the Cone Nebula with the Christmas Tree Cluster, and the open cluster Messier 50. Southern sky from equatorial latitudes, image: Stellarium. The brightest constellations that appear high overhead around 10 pm are Canis Major and Puppis. These are Andromeda (the Chained Maiden), Auriga (the Charioteer), Cassiopeia (the Queen), Cepheus (the King), Lacerta (the Lizard), Pegasus (the Winged Horse), Perseus and Triangulum (the Triangle). The brightest stars of Andromeda Alpheratz, Mirach, and Almach form a chain that appears almost perpendicular to the northwestern horizon in the evening. Constellations in the southern circumpolar sky include Grus, Phoenix, Indus, Tucana, Pavo, Ara . The cluster marks the Bulls shoulder and is one of the most recognizable features of the northern sky. First, you should practice stargazing with your naked eye before purchasing or utilizing any telescopes. The asterism appears high in the southwestern sky in the evening. 2.02) appears lower in the sky. It is the brightest star above the southwestern horizon in the evening. These constellations are always visible in the night sky of the Northern Hemisphere. This giant of the northern hemisphere night sky is visible throughout the winter, and is one of the most prominent constellations. Look at the right-hand 'V' of the W-shape and Imagine the bottom point is an arrow; follow the line down about . The star has a mass 9 times that of the Sun and is 170,000 times more luminous. Dragon. The sun will rise perfectly due east and set due west. The best time to go stargazing is in the summer months. M42 measures around 24 light-years across, and contained within it is the famous Trapezium asterism, made up of four very hot and massive stars which illuminate and heat up the nebulas surrounding gas. If you live in a town or city, you may have forgotten the Milky Way is even there as soon as light pollution comes into the equation, the bulk of stars that form the plane of our galaxy are incredibly difficult to spot. Sirius and Procyon form the Winter Triangle with Betelgeuse at Orions shoulder. When you become a member, you join our mission to increase discoveries in our solar system and beyond, elevate the search for life outside our planet, and decrease the risk of Earth being hit by an asteroid. The Big Dipper has another astronomicl treat in its tail a double star. They become significantly clearer with binoculars. The constellation Scorpius, the scorpion, is located in the southern hemisphere of the sky. The Big Dipper appears upside down and Alkaid at the end of the Dippers handle may or may not be visible, depending on the geography. Other notable deep-sky objects in Orion include the bright red giant star Betelgeuse (Alpha Orionis), the famous Horse Head Nebula, De Mairans Nebula (M43), and Orions Belt, consisting of three bright stars in a straight line marking out the waist of the Hunter. Southern circumpolar constellations include Phoenix, Grus, Tucana, Eridanus, Hydrus, Lupus, Cruz, Centaurus and Carina, among others. Canis Major is home to Sirius, the brightest star in the sky and one of our nearest neighbours. The Orion Nebula is located around 1,350 light-years away from Earth. Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported License, instructions on how to enable JavaScript in your web browser, Exploration is in our nature. - Carl Sagan. The exception. Casio's latest G-Shock watch could be a serious Garmin rival. It lies only 280 light-years away. Its main constellation figure a crooked hourglass is outlined by Betelgeuse, Rigel, Bellatrix, Saiph, and the stars of Orions Belt. Virgo, the second largest constellation in the sky, has mostly risen by 10 pm. The red dwarf lies only 4.2465 light-years away, while the systems brighter components, Rigil Kentaurus and Toliman, lie 4.344 light-years away. in the eastern part of the constellation at 75 degrees west longitude and GOES-15, operating as GOES-West, at 135 degrees west . Lepus represents a hare chased by Orion and his two dogs, Canis Major and Canis Minor. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech For example, say you're in the Northern Hemisphere looking into the night sky on September 21. The stars of Crux can be used to find the fainter Musca (the Fly). . Its one of the most wonderful sights in the northern hemisphere night sky, the sort of view that can kickstart a lifelong love of astronomy. There was a problem. Gienah and Algorab point in the direction of Spica. Using a star map, you can point out the correct constellations that appear in the season in which you go. . The majority of the modern 36 northern constellations are based on the Greek constellations, first catalogued by the astronomer Ptolemy in the 2nd century.
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